How to Determine the Mass of a Star

How to Determine the Mass of a Star Nearly everything in the universe has mass, from atoms and sub-atomic particles (such as those studied by the Large Hadron Collider) to giant clusters of galaxies.  The only things scientists know about so far that dont have mass are photons and gluons.   Mass is important to know, but objects in the sky are too distant. We cant touch them and we certainly cant weigh them through conventional means. So, how do astronomers determine the mass of things in the cosmos? Its complicated.   Stars and Mass Assume that a  typical star  is pretty massive, generally much more so than a typical planet. Why care about its mass? That information is important to know because  it reveals clues about a stars evolutionary past, present, and future. Astronomers using the Hubble Space Telescope identified nine monster stars with masses more than 100 times the Suns mass. They lie in the star cluster R136 in the nearby Large Magellanic Cloud. Mass is an important characteristic when figuring out the life spans of stars. NASA/ESA/STScI Astronomers can use several indirect methods to determine stellar mass. One method, called  gravitational lensing, measures the path of light that is bent by the gravitational pull of a nearby object. Although the amount of bending is small, careful measurements can reveal the mass of the gravitational pull of the object doing the tugging. Typical Star Mass Measurements It took astronomers until the 21st century to apply gravitational lensing to measuring stellar masses. Before that, they had to rely on measurements of stars orbiting a common center of mass, so-called binary stars. The mass of  binary stars (two stars orbiting a common center of gravity) is pretty easy for astronomers to measure. In fact, multiple star systems provide a textbook example of how to figure out their masses. Its a bit technical but worth studying to understand what astronomers have to do. A Hubble Space Telescope image of Sirius A and B, a binary system 8.6 light-years away from Earth. NASA/ESA/STScI First, they measure the orbits of all the stars in the system. They also clock the stars orbital speeds and then determine how long it takes a given star to go through one orbit. Thats called its orbital period.   Calculating Mass Once all that information is known, astronomers next do some calculations to determine the masses of the stars. They can use the equation Vorbit SQRT(GM/R) where SQRT is square root a, G is gravity, M is mass, and R is the radius of the object. Its a matter of algebra to tease out the mass by rearranging the equation to solve for M.   So, without ever touching a star, astronomers use mathematics and known physical laws to figure out its mass. However, they cant do this for every star. Other measurements help them figure out the masses for stars ​not in binary or multiple-star systems. For example, they can use luminosities and temperatures. Stars of different luminosities and temperatures have vastly different masses. That information, when plotted on a graph, shows that stars can be arranged by temperature and luminosity. Really massive stars are among the hottest ones in the universe. Lesser-mass stars, such as the Sun, are cooler than their gigantic siblings. The graph of star temperatures, colors, and brightnesses is called the Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram, and by definition, it also shows a stars mass, depending on where it lies on the chart. If it lies along a long, sinuous curve called the Main Sequence, then astronomers know that its mass will not be gigantic nor will it be small. The largest mass and smallest-mass stars fall outside the Main Sequence. This version of the Hertzprung-Russell diagram plots the temperatures of stars against their luminosities. The position of a star in the diagram provides information about what stage it is in, as well as its mass and brightness. European Southern Observatory Stellar Evolution Astronomers have a good handle on how stars are born, live, and die. This sequence of life and death is called stellar evolution. The biggest predictor of how a star will evolve is the mass its born with, its initial mass. Low-mass stars are generally cooler and dimmer than their higher-mass counterparts. So, simply by looking at a stars color, temperature, and where it lives in the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, astronomers can get a good idea of a stars mass. Comparisons of similar stars of known mass (such as the binaries mentioned above) give astronomers a good idea of how massive a given star is, even if it isnt a binary. Of course, stars dont keep the same mass all their lives. They lose it as they age. They gradually consume their nuclear fuel, and eventually, experience huge episodes of mass loss at the ends of their lives. If theyre stars like the Sun, they blow it off gently and form planetary nebulae (usually). If theyre much more massive than the Sun, they die in supernova events, where the cores collapse and then expand outward in a catastrophic explosion. That blasts much of their material to space. Composite image of the Crab Nebula, a supernova remnant that heralded the death of a very massive star. NASA/ESA/ASU/J. Hester A. Loll By observing the types of stars that die like the Sun or die in supernovae, astronomers can deduce what other stars will do. They know their masses, they know how other stars with similar masses evolve and die, and so they can make some pretty good predictions, based on observations of color, temperature, and other aspects that help them understand their masses. Theres much more to observing the stars than gathering data. The information astronomers get is folded into very accurate models that help them predict just exactly what stars in the Milky Way and throughout the universe will do as they are born, age, and die, all based on their masses. In the end, that information also helps people understand more about stars, particularly our Sun. Fast Facts The mass of a star is an important predictor for many other characteristics, including how long it will live.Astronomers use indirect methods to determine the masses of stars since they cant directly touch them.Typically speaking, more massive stars live shorter lifetimes than the less massive ones. This is because they consume their nuclear fuel much faster.Stars like our Sun are intermediate-mass and will end in a much different way than massive stars that will blow themselves up after a few tens of millions of years.

Critical Discussion Papers 6088 Dissertation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Critical Discussion Papers 6088 - Dissertation Example Second, this type of learning approach is also modifiable, as it can be augmented by both sophisticated (photonic wands) and simple (drawings and pictures) communicative supports, allowing a differentiated learning experience based on the initial individual abilities of the students. In addition, this approach is apt for heterogeneous classes, which is usually the case, because they provide high quantity and quality communicative interactions. In the study of Arthur-Kelly et al. (2008) observing classes with disabled students, spontaneous interactive communication in heterogeneous classes occurred 17% of the time, as opposed to 4% in special classes composed of disabled students only. It was likewise observed that communication among disabled students and peers without disability is the best social forum for simple communication tasks such as turn-taking, greeting and requesting. However, as Arthur-Kelly et al. (2010) as well as Maheady and Gard (2010) suggested, the downside of coop erative learning and peer tutoring is that it relies heavily on the response of the students on the interactive set-up of learning. In teaching disabled students, for example, the partner without disabilities should be sensitive to the needs of their more-challenged counterpart. The understanding and acceptance of what is given communicatively is central to the effectiveness of the teaching approach. Thus, cooperative learning and peer tutoring, as they are currently used, are impossible to standardize. Students may thus receive different levels of information, depending on how much they can process. In the future, studies may look into means of standardizing the information received by all the students. One way this can be done is alternating between big class discussions and small group or paired discussions so that the information shared in between partners are also shared to the whole class. Developing teacher intuition, reflection and responsiveness may be one of the ways by wh ich standardization can be achieved. In addition, The extensive use of augmentative and alternative communication resources may also be looked into for the improvement of the quantity of knowledge and skills built up through this learning approach. Title: The Impractical Research-Based Teaching Practices There are reasons already recognized why implementation of research practices in real-life setting cannot be done over long periods of time (Mastropieri and Scroogs, 1998). One of the most common causes pointed at is that the methods used by research studies do not reflect the true classroom setting. In addition, researchers use curriculum-based measurements to draw their conclusions regarding the effectiveness of their approach, when in fact teachers observe attitudinal and behavioral changes in students to assess the effectiveness of their teaching method. Previous studies have also suggested that teacher individualism is compromised by these research-based practices. As such, tea chers are reluctant in adapting them for effective teaching. In addition, researchers do not properly train the teachers of the methods they deem beneficial for teaching. They also fail to communicate with the teachers in developing novel teaching approaches. Thus, problems such as the narrow or overly broad scope of some of the most common research-based teaching approache

Celebration Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Celebration - Essay Example The paper discusses that there are two traditional festivals attributed to the Islamic faith, which includes Eid-ul-Fitr and Eid-ul-Adha, both of which are observed according to the lunar Islamic months or sighting of the moon. The term Eid simply means festivity, happiness or joy; consequently, both the Eids are considered to be synonymous with happiness. The Muslims in Saudi Arabia begin the 1st day of Shawwal with Fajr prayer, one of the five daily obligatory prayers. The houses are especially cleansed and decorated all over the country to welcome the festival. After it, some sweet dish is taken, which has already been cooked for Eid day by women. The Saudis wear new clothes, which are specially prepared for this day, and start gathering for another prayer, called Eid prayer, which is generally offered in some vast ground, field or spacious mosque (Cartright~Jones, 2001:5). Before offering the prayer, the Saudis pay fit ran or charity to the deserving and needy people, from all family members, which is obligatory for every Muslim. To conclude, it becomes evident that both the Eids contain meaning and message in their nature and scope. Celebrating the festivals reflect the true spirit of the faith that all humans are equal in the eyes of the Creator, and only the pious and sacrificing enjoys superior status according to the noble teachings of the faith. Since Eid-ul-Fitr and Eid-ul-Adha serve as the two sole religious-cultural festivals of the country, the Saudis take very active part to celebrate them in an exciting and thrilling manner.

Application Of Supercharging To Si Engines

Application Of Supercharging To Si Engines Enhancements in fuel consumption can be achieved through engine downsizing. However, it is essential to provide a corresponding increase in power in order to improve or maintain vehicle performance. This increase can be obtained through supercharging or turbocharging. Supercharging has the most visual impact of any high performance modification. Supercharging or turbocharging may help achieve engine downsizing that reduces relative value of losses at lower engines loads and vehicle weight, thereby decreasing road fuel consumption of a vehicle. By employing the appropriate motor-management, it is also possible to regulate the necessary full-load speed curve [1]. On the other hand, the danger of knocking or mixing auto-ignition restricts the optimum compression ratio established for the best efficiency. Furthermore, the optimum combination of spark advance and combustion ratio needs to be investigated particularly at low engine speed at which knocking often takes part. The driving power demand of a supercharger or the exhaust back pressure exerted by a turbine is likely to compensate for the efficiency benefits from engine downsizing in strong reliance on the system of boost pressure control. In essence, it is important because it allows for the reduction in the engine speed at maximum torque. Thus, such multi-parametric optimization is not generally provided by experiments since the process is too time-consuming and too expensive [2]. The most appropriate way is to simulate a virtual-engine into some basic experiments employed for initial calibration of engine model and eventually for confirming the optimum results by checking the vicinity o f simulation-predicted optimum matching. This simulation offers a useful tool to compare between different boost pressure control factors within rapid or quasi-steady change operation parameters [1]. Toward that end, a supercharger is said to be an air compressor that is extensively used for performing forced induction of an internal combustion engine. Moreover, the higher mass flow-rate The application of supercharging to SI engines offers more oxygen for supporting combustion than the naturally-aspirated engine that lets more amount of fuel to be supplied and more work to be performed per cycle, thereby increasing the overall power output of the engine. In essence, a supercharger is powered mechanically by a gear, belt, chain or shaft attached to the engineà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢s crankshaft. A Supercharger can also be powered by an exhaust gas turbine. Furthermore, a turbine-driven supercharger is termed as a turbosupercharger or a turbocharger. And the term supercharging relates to any pump that is driven directly by the engine, as against turbochargers that are driven by the pressure exerted by the exhaust gases [1]. 2. Types of superchargers with respect to the method of compression: Dynamic compressors: Dynamic compressors depend on accelerating the air to high speed and then interchanging that velocity for pressure by slowing down or diffusing. Main types of dynamic compressors are Centrifugal, pressure wave supercharger and multi-stage axial à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬flow. 2.2 Positive displacement: Positive displacement pumps are responsible for delivering a nearly-fixed volume of air per revolution at all speeds. The device separates the air mechanically into distinct parcels to deliver it to the engine mechanically moving the air into the engine gradually. Main kinds of positive-displacement pumps are roots, sliding vane, Wankel engine, scroll-type supercharger, piston, and Lysholm screw [3]. Positive displacement pumps are again categorized into internal and external compression types. Moreover, roots superchargers are mainly external compression only. External compression is for pumps that transfer air at enclosed pressure into the engine. If the engine runs under boost conditions, the pressure at the intake manifold is greater than the one coming from the The application of supercharging to SI engines This results in a backflow originating from the engine into the supercharger until both reach equilibrium. And this backflow actually causes compression of the incoming gas [4]. Internal compression on the other hand refers to the compression of air inside the supercharger itself, which is already at boost level, can be transmitted smoothly to the engine without any backflow occurring. Internal compression is much more efficient and effective than backflow compression and allows for greater efficiency to be obtained. Furthermore, internal compression pumps usually employ a fixed internal compression ratio. That is, when the boost pressure equals the compression pressure in the supercharger, the backflow becomes zero. However, if the boost pressure becomes higher than that compression pressure, backflow may still occur similar to the roots blower [4]. 3. Supercharger drive types: Superchargers are also defined according to their method of drive, i.e. whether turbine or mechanical. 3.1 Exhaust gas turbines: Radial turbine. Axial turbine. 3.2 Mechanical: Belts (Flat belt, V-belt, Synchronous belt). Gear drive. Direct drive. Chain drive. The application of supercharging to SI engines Practical mechanical supercharging pumps are classified into: Sliding vane compressors. Centrifugal compressors. Rotary compressors. Sliding vane compressors and Rotary compressors are the positive displacement compressors. Centrifugal compressors are aerodynamic compressors [5]. Sliding vane compressors consist of deep slots that are cut into the rotor in order to accommodate thin vanes that are free to move radially. The rotor is placed eccentrically in the entire housing. With every rotation of the rotor, the centrifugal forces exerted on the vanes drive them outward against the housing, and divide the crescent-shape space into various compartments. Furthermore, ambient or enclosed air is drawn through the intake port into every compartment with the volume increasing to reach its maximum. Then, the trapped air is compressed whenever the compartment volume reduces, and is further discharged through the outlet port. Moreover, the flow capacity of the sliding vane compressor relies on the maximum induction volume that is determined by the bore of the housing cylinder, rotor length and diameter, number of vanes, eccentricity, and the dimensions of the intake and outlet ports. Also, the actual pressure and flow rate rise at constant speed will decrease due to l eakage, the heat transfer from the vanes and rotors in motion and the stator surfaces will decrease compression efficiency except when cooling is used for removing the thermal energy produced by friction at the vanes, the rotor and the stator [5]. The roots blower is an alternative positive displacement supercharger. It consists of two rotors connected by gears. The working of roots blower follows transmission of air trapped in the recesses between the rotor lobes and the main housing, towards the delivery port without any The application of supercharging to SI engines substantial change in volume. When these recesses open to the delivery ports, as the suction side is closed, the trapped air is compressed by the backflow generated at the higher-pressure delivery line. This sporadic and abrupt delivery generates non-uniform torque on rotor as well as pressure pulses at the delivery line. Moreover, the volumetric efficiency relies on the rotor length, rotational speed, pressure ratio and the running clearances [3]. A performance map of a distinctive small roots blower is demonstrated in Figure [1]. It is almost same as that of the sliding vane compressor. Figure [1]: A performance map of a distinctive small roots blower [3]. Furthermore, the flow rate is dependent on increasing pressure ratio, at constant speed, only via the resulting decrease in volumetric efficiency. In essence, screw compressor need to be precision machines to obtain close tolerance between stationary and rotating elements for acceptable operation. Moreover, they operate at speeds ranging from 3000 rev/min to 30,000 rev/min. Generally, it is essential to cool the rotors internally, and high values of isentropic and volumetric efficiency are claimed [6]. The application of supercharging to SI engines A centrifugal compressor is mainly used to boost inlet air or the mixture density that is coupled with an exhaust-driven turbine within a turbocharger. This compressor is single-stage radial flow device, most suitable for the high mass flow rates at the comparatively low pressure ratios needed by the engine. In order to operate effectively, it should rotate at high angular speed. Therefore, it is better suited to direct coupling to the exhaust-driven turbine of the turbocharger rather than to mechanical coupling via a gearbox to the engine for mechanical supercharging. Essentially, the centrifugal compressor comprises of a stationary inlet casing, a stationary diffuser, a rotating bladed impellor, as well as a volute or collector for bringing the compressed air leaving the diffuser to the engine inlet system [6]. 4. Turbines: The turbocharger turbine is motored by the energy produced at the engine exhaust. The ideal energy consists of the blowdown work transfer generated by expansion of the gas within the cylinder at exhaust valve opening to atmospheric pressure and the work done by the piston that displaces the gases remaining in the cylinder after the blowdown occurs [1]. 5. Supercharging vs. Turbocharging: Similar to a supercharger, the purpose of a turbocharger is to enhance the mass of air inbound to the engine in order to create more power. A turbocharger, however, differs in that the compressor is driven by a turbine powered by the engines own exhaust gases [5]. Positive displacement superchargers absorb as much as one-third of the total crankshaft power driven from the engine, and is most supplications, are less effective than turbochargers. The application of supercharging to SI engines Significantly, in applications for which engine power and response are more crucial than any other factor, like the top-fuel dragsters, positive displacement superchargers are commonly used. The thermal efficiency or fraction of air/fuel energy converted to output power is less in a mechanically-powered supercharger than in a turbocharger, since turbochargers use energy from the exhaust gases that are normally wasted. As a result, both the economy as well as the power of a turbocharged engine is much better than with superchargers [3].

The Surprising Moby Dick :: Moby Dick Essays

The Surprising Moby Dick      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Moby Dick was not the novel I expected.   I was under the impression that it would be about seafaring and the whale Moby Dick.   Instead, Moby Dick is a story about Captain Ahab's obsession.   There is very little in the story about the revenge itself, just about Ahab's monomania.   Out of 465 pages, only forty-two of them deal with the actual battle between Ahab and Moby Dick.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     The novel places very little emphasis on actual seafaring. Ishmael never even steps on a boat until page seventy-four.   Even when the ship finally leaves port, the mention of anything involving sailing or the life of sailors is kept to an absolute minimum.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   There is, however, plenty of emphasis is on whaling, the anatomy of whales, and their behavior.   The book goes into great detail describing the whalers of Nantucket, and gives in-depth explanations of the different types of whales, quoting several outside sources in the process.   The narrator mentions the awesome size of the sperm whale, and how few books even try to describe it.   He also shows great respect for people who go whaling, and describes the camaraderie that forms between them.   This is an annoying inconsistency in the novel, since Ishmael (the narrator) tells the reader that he has never been on a whaling ship before, and has never seen a live whale.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The first twenty-three chapters focus on Ishmael's thoughts and actions.   He introduces the reader to whaling and describes the Pequod. After the ship sets sail, he seems to vanish from the story. At certain intervals, however, he plays minor roles, and it is Ishmael that survives to tell the story.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   From chapter twenty-four onward, the novel is almost completely about Ahab hunting for Moby Dick.   He has the blacksmith construct a special harpoon, made from the finest iron, and soaked in the blood of the three harpooners.   The forging of the harpoon is somewhat ironic, since the rope attached to that same harpoon is what drags Ahab to the bottom of the sea.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Despite Ahab's apparent madness, he still seemed able to reason clearly.   He carefully and methodically located the region of the sea that

One Should Never Judge a Person by External Appearances Essay

I certainly agree with the above statement. â€Å"Never judge a book by its cover.† The word â€Å"book† also refers to person. External appearances can trick us. If you only look at a person by his outlook, you will never find and have a true friend because the most important is inner beauty or character. Person who has fierce face, frightening appearances looks like a rascal may be a friendly and kind person. He probably has reason to act like that. It may be caused of family problems, a bad memories or something that won’t even pops up in our mind. Don’t ever be afraid to say â€Å"hi† or just give a smile. It will impact something good. Usually, person like that doesn’t want to greet others first. He may be a nice person. In the other hand, a ‘good-looking’ person may be a bad one. We won’t realize that he has an evil plan to prick behind us because his outlook covers everything. They may look friendly outside but depraved inside. Silent doesn’t always mean golden. He may think or even plan something bad when he’s in silent. He may hide his anger deep inside and covers it so that nobody will know. But, he can’t keep it for the rest of his life. Sometimes, he must be angry and usually it will be more frightening than people in common. So, at the end, by this essay, I just want to say that outer beauty isn’t the most important, but inner beauty is. An outlook hide what’s inside. But, it doesn’t mean a ‘good-looking’ person is always bad. A good friend is he who always be there for us although we don’t see them.

Macbeths Killing of King Duncan in William Shakespeares...

Macbeths Killing of King Duncan in William Shakespeares Macbeth The play of Macbeth was technically set in the 11th century (despite showing little indication of the period). The Scottish play was written by William Shakespeare in 1606 and is one of his tragedies, in that the main characters struggle with circumstances and meet death and despair. It was allegedly written for King James 1st by Shakespeare to act as a propaganda tool to basically scare people against trying to kill the King, as Guy Fawkes had attempted to do. It is noted that King James was fascinated by witchcraft and at the time when it was written there was a strong cultural belief in supernatural objects such as the Devil†¦show more content†¦Therefore it seems that the witches can not be accused of persuading Macbeth to kill Duncan it is Macbeth in this case persuading himself. Macbeth hears only what he wants to hear from the prediction of witches. Their words are eerie and provide the play with dramatic impact especially since they speak in rhyme and repeat certain phrases such as munched, and munched, and munched. Now let us consider the role of lady Macbeth in the demise of Duncan. Lady Macbeth is delighted when she receives a letter from her husband telling her of the witchs predictions. She uses the fact that Macbeth regards her very highly dearest partner of greatness to get her own way. These words also allude to royalty and sovereignty - promises of what is to come. Lady Macbeth realises, however that her husband lacks ruthless ambition Yet do I fear thy nature: it is too full of the milk of human kindness. Macbeth recognises that he wants to achieve ambition but only by fair means. Shakespeare uses word to create an energetic response from a person i.e. there is energy and force behind Lady Macbeths words. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦I will pour my spirit into thine ear, and chastise with the valour of my tongue all that impedes me from the golden, round, Which fate andShow MoreRelatedMacbeths Cruelity in Shakespeares Macbeth Essay595 Words   |  3 PagesMacbeths Cruelity in Shakespeares Macbeth William Shakespeares play Macbeth written in 1605-1606, is a brilliant and dramatic piece of art about how the Scots and Macbeth butchered the whole Danish army. People set high goals or purposes with significant meaning in Shakespeares time. People back then set their goals by working very hard to get better or getting done what they set out to achieve. People did anything and everything to get a better job or get wealthier back then. 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